Mao Zedong Analysis - 1294 Words

In Oct 01, 1949, Mao Zedong published to the world about the creation of the Peoples Republic of China (â€Å" Mao Zedong proclaim Peoples Republic of China., †¦) Mao was the great contributor to united China, brought China out of the oppression of foreign country. From the Opium Wars in between the nineteenth century, Mao Zedong never stopped follow his goal by opened many campaign, and movement that help to develop the modernization of China. Mao was judge about his wrong policies conducted to make the Great Chinese Famine happened between 1959 to 1961 by the campaign of the Anti Right Campaign, the Great Leap Forward happened in 1958 to 1959. Those events were contributed to make the Great Chinese Famine happened, and†¦show more content†¦The adoration of Chinese because the strength of awareness generation spreaded outside of China, and make this country lost many chances to develop the economy. Firstly, China and Maos Party got support well by the Russian as know n as Soviet Union but this relationship started to rift and it ended before the Culture Revolution starts (citation ). After the failures of the Great Leap Forward, it made thirty million people starved, and it was the Great Famine in the humanity, it caused Mao became the puppet instead of holding â€Å"real power. Before the sense of losing political position, Mao reacted to start the Culture Revolution in 1966. By this way, Mao did not using the â€Å"high-class system of the Communism, he directly control the youth boy under 20 years, created the Red Guards to institute the separate court. The Cultural Revolution’s consequences was the Red Guards destroyed most of the Chinese Cultural Heritage. The Red Guards during Maos presidency was maltreat, and imprison many of the ex- communists and intellectuals. At the same time, it created many economic and social chaos at most countryside. A million people was killed during this period. Many Maos supporters assumed that because of Mao, China ended the Century of Humiliation out of the West countries and became the strongest country, economic and social in China get developed and developing. They composed that the percentages of illiteracy was eightyShow MoreRelatedSimilarities And Differences Between Bianco And Mao Zedong1549 Words   |  7 Pagessurprise and debated topic due to historians access to available resources to find and analyze the complete story for why the country went socialist. Two of the biggest leading historians of Chinese politics at the time included Lucien Bianco and Mao Zedong. Mao Zedong lived from 1893 to 1976 in which a part of his life was spent under the rule of a Feudalist system before reforming the country into a red state. Lucien Bianco was born in 1930 and most of his life still consists of living under a communistRead More Womens Freedom during Chinas Revolutionary Period Essay1360 Words   |  6 Pagesparty†¦ordered women me mbers to support the civil war with the Guomindang† (HH 237). Hughes and Hughes also comment that â€Å"women active[ly] participat[ed] in revolutionary movements† (HH 232). Although these statements are quite valid, they lack any analysis of the actual dynamics between the revolutionary parties and women’s interests as stated above. Furthermore, whenever tension developed between gender groups, the men were most often appeased rather than the women. For example, as a resultRead MoreUnderstanding The Relationship Between Zhou Enlai And Mao Zedong1630 Words   |  7 PagesUnderstanding the relationship between Zhou Enlai and Mao Zedong is critical in determining Zhou’s true motives for providing sanctuary to the victims of the Cultural Revolution. The mystery of Zhou and Mao’s relationship is not that of Mao’s sadism, which has been exposed by numerous writers, but Zhou’s submission. Their relationship, and Zhou’s role in Communist China, and therefore the Cultural Revolution is questioned by few historians other than Gao Wenqian, Andrew Nathan, and Jonathan SpenceRead MoreLeasership of Mao Zedong3279 Words   |  14 PagesLeadership of Mao Zedong RXE Chen Qianqian 3011521 November 4, 2010 Content Abstract †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦3 Introduction†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦4 Biography Family †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦5 Education – Self-study†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦5 Revolutionary road Into the party’s central power†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦6 Conquest Kuomintang†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦7 Rebuild China†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦8 LeadershipRead MoreThe Cultural Revolution And Reign Of Mao Zedong969 Words   |  4 PagesThis was China under the Cultural Revolution and reign of Mao Zedong. During this era, a person with traditional political or religious views struggled incredibly. Mao Zedong attacked traditional Chinese culture and â€Å"launched what became known as the Cultural Revolution in order to reassert his authority over the Chinese government. Believing that current Communist leaders were taking the party, and China itself, in the wrong direction, Mao called on the nation’s youth to purge the ‘impure’ elementsRead MoreExamine the Conditions That Led to the Rise of a Single-Party State Under Mao Zedong.1513 Words   |  7 PagesEXAMINE THE CONDITIONS THAT LED TO THE RISE OF A SINGLE-PARTY STATE UNDER MAO ZEDONG. â€Å"In October 1949 Mao Zedong proclaimed the establishment of the People’s Republic of China† (IB Packet, 60). This date marked the official beginning of the CCP’s (Chinese Communist Party) rule under a single party rule. However, one question remains: what exactly were the prominent conditions that led to this rise of the CCP under Mao Zedong? Although one could easily isolate several specific variables that aidedRead MoreThe Relationship Between Ccp And Cpsu3961 Words   |  16 Pages1960s to explore the causes of Sino-Soviet split. In Soviet 20th Party Congress, Khrushchev’s de-Stalinization provided communistic countries a new possibility to develop socialism. Mao Zedong considered it as a chance to develop China and surpass capitalistic countries in a short time. Therefore, Mao Zedong launched the Great Leap Forward movement, which aimed to catch up with capitalistic countries such as United Kingdom and United States, as well as surpass Soviet Union to become the leaderRead MoreEconomics And The International System2303 Words   |  10 PagesRunning head: CHINA: WHERE IT’S BEEN AND WHERE IT’S GOING 1 China’s Economy: Where it’s been, and where it’s going An Analysis and Literature Review Norwich University Author Note This paper was prepared for GD530 Economics and the International System, taught by Professor Snow CHINA: WHERE IT’S BEEN AND WHERE IT’S GOING 2 Abstract The purpose of this essay is to show how the economy of China has, and is changingRead MoreThe Great Leap Forward : A Communist Party Of China1322 Words   |  6 Pagesyear 1958, the People’s Republic of China was looking to be on the cusp of modernization. With the Communist Party of China (CPC) coming to power in 1949 and the nation ripe for communist organization similar to that of the Soviet Union, Chairman Mao Zedong and his advisors looked to transition China from a socialist structure until the standard of living improved to the point where the country could become fully communist. With a population of over half a million, this goal was not out of reach, andRead MoreThe 100 Flowers Movement And Expression1217 Words   |  5 Pagescommunist parties The movement started after the red army prevailed in the race against the capitalist. The reason the movement started was because Mao wanted to hear citizens true opinions about the regime. Mao said Criticism of the bureaucracy is pushing the government towards the better. and that shocked the chinese people, because before Mao would have cracked down on anyone. Before this sudden change of heart, saying even one remotely bad thing about the communist party would have resulted

Case Study Air Transport Management And Operations

Air Transport Management and Operations Module AT502 TASK 3 Ben Matthews 30/10/14 CONTENTS Task 3: Perform a strategic analysis of your chosen airline. The analysis should take appropriate consideration of factors both internal and external to the organization. 1. Introduction 2. Main findings 2.1 Appraisal of airline’s operating environment 2.2 Appraisal of Airlines internal capabilities 2.3 Key Issues identification and analysis 3. Conclusions 4. References List 1. Task 3 Industry Overview The LCC industry first began in the United States with Pacific Southwest Airlines, evolving the model in the late 1940’s. The EU business did not develop until after deregulation came into force during the 1990’s, thus making air travel cheaper and more accessable for a larger proportion of customers. Moving forward on the ever evolving requirement for cost effective travel mainly by families and recreational individuals (average annual increase of 9.4% for leisure passengers between the mid 90’s and 00’s), aviation has experienced rapid incline since then. Most significantly, UK company EasyJet, established in 1995 and Irish carrier Ryanair, born in 1990. Both were able to shape the European market. 2. Main findings 2.1 Appraisal of the airline’s operating environment Political Factors The evolution of the LCC industry in the EU was only possible because of one major change in 1997 – the deregulation of the European flight market. Before, the market for flightsShow MoreRelatedThe Organizational Change And Development Of A Travel And Tourism Organization933 Words   |  4 PagesManagement for Travel and Tourism Name: BALKISU TEJAN, ID: 37007 ANALYSIS OF THE ORGANISATIONAL CHANGE AND DEVELOPMENT OF A TRAVEL AND TOURISM ORGANIZATION: CASE STUDY OF BRITISH AIRWAYS It is essential that an organization undergoes growth and development, Organizational change and innovation. Many investigators have formulated theories related to change management once they begin to understand the importance of organizational change and innovation. This theoriesRead MoreThe Problem With Ageing Aircraft1411 Words   |  6 PagesIntroduction In the present day, air transport is suggested to be safest means of transport we have at our disposal[1]. Studies state that over 50% of the fatality rate has been reduced over the past 15 years. Yet, the few major accidents that occur claim a large magnitude of life in such short space and time that it grabs the world’s attention[2]. It is a widely accepted notion that aged aircraft are a risk, but to consider them to be an unacceptable risk is a multifaceted question, since the majorityRead MoreLegal Landscape Of Air Charter Transportation1232 Words   |  5 PagesLANDSCAPE OF AIR CHARTER TRANSPORTATION The air transportation services in India are controlled by Directorate General of Civil Aviation (hereinafter â€Å"DGCA†), operating under the Ministry of Civil Aviation (MCA). According to Rule 134 of the Aircraft Rules, 1937, the DGCA is empowered to grant permission to individuals to operate an air transport service to, within and from India. 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They are Toronto Pearson International Airport, Montrà ©al–Pierre Elliott Trudeau International Airport, Calgary International Airport, and Vancouver International Airport. Due to the large geographic area of the country, air transportation is the primary mode of travel for the Canadian population. Canada’s population growth rate was the highest amongst the G8 countries between 2006 and 2011 at 5.3%. Along with that, theRead MoreA Report On Southwest Airlines Essay1224 Words   |  5 Pagesunderserved city markets and secondary airports in the central urban areas. Nonetheless, the very success of this operation is putting stress on the airports it operated as well as the ATC systems. The continuation on growing profits depends critically on freeing up the infrastructure to respond to increased future demand. However, during the last year, the increase in air carrier operations at the airport caused opposition to growth Dallas Love Field from neighbor’s communities. 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Auditing Theory and Practice Business Organizations

Question: Describe about the Auditing Theory and Practice for Business Organizations. Answer: 1. Risk is the situation under which organisation is exposed or vernacular to certain and uncertain danger present in internal and external environment. Woolworths Limited is the organisation which is undertaken for this report. In this report, inherent risk factors are discussed and how identification of same is done by auditor of the business organisation. On what basis, identified risk is can because material misstatement in the financial statements was also discussed in this report(Batta, Ganguly Rosett 2914). Inherent risk can be defined as the risk which exists in business because of environment and lack of control measures. Following are four inherent risk factors that Woolworths Limited has in its financial statements: Inherent Risk Factor 1: Market Risk Rapid change in exchange rates Describe the risk- Rapid change in exchange rates is the most crucial inherent risk factor that Woolworth ltd has. Since Woolworth ltd has its business operations all around the globe and operating its business in many different countries. This raises the concern of exchange rates and fluctuation in different currencies (Djassemi 2012). How risk create material misstatement in financial statements- Operating profits of Woolworth ltd can be seriously influenced from exchange rate different as sales revenue comes from different countries and at different point of time. Therefore audit plan of auditors shall include due consideration of Rapid change in exchange rates as inherent risk factor. Therefore in this manner, rapid fluctuation in exchange rates will influence income statement of Woolworth ltd. On the other hand, operating exposure to exchange rate fluctuation can made impact on financial statements as there are many foreign competitions in the market(Hasanov Baharumshah 2014). Woolworth ltd can face influence of inflation rate of different economy or countries on its sales revenue. Impact of exchange rate can either increase profitability or it can decreases profitability of Woolworth ltd. While auditing the financial statements of Woolworth ltd, auditors needs to make detail analysis of exchange rates and cor rect reflection of same while recording transactions in financial statements(Jans, Alles Vasarhelyi 2014). In this case of Woolworth ltd, accuracy assertion plays important role while auditing financial statements. As per accuracy assertion, transaction undertaken by Woolworth ltd shall be recorded at appropriate amount. Here appropriate amount means, exchange rate shall be correctly used while converting foreign current into home currency(Clikeman Diaz 2014). Therefore this has became most curtail area of concern for auditors that to check exchange rate at the time of transaction and other relevant adjustments had been made or not. Another assertion that shall take place while making audit plan is of classification. Classification assertion requires correct and appropriate classification and presentation of foreign transactions undertaken during the period in financial statements(Mainardi 2011). Profit or loss on foreign exchange transactions has been appropriately classified or not and fairly presented or not need to be check by auditor. Therefore while making audit plan inherent risk of rapid change or fluctuation in exchange rates shall be examined and verified by employing classification and accuracy assertions. Inherent Risk Factor 2- Critical Accounting Estimates and Judgements Describe the risk Another form of inherent risk that Woolworth ltd faces is of critical accounting estimates and judgements that managers and board of directors has to make time to time. Since business operation of Woolworth ltd has spread out in various sections therefore they are exposed to more inherent risk as propionate to business operations. While complying with groups accounting policies and business assumption, managers at different level and directors have to certain adjustment and estimates of amount that are presented in financial statements of Woolworth ltd. Accounting estimates, assumptions and judgements made by directors or mangers are based on their working experience, level of market influence and level of criticality of the transaction(Askary, Goodwin Lanis 2012). How risk create material misstatement in financial statements Since auditor has to examine and verify assets and liabilities of the Woolworth ltd that involve judgements and estimations of management. Therefore different estimation and adjustments can influence amount of transaction or item of financial statements(Leung, Coram Cooper 2015). Following are some transactions or items that involve complex or high level of significant risk: Value or amount of provisions presented in financial statements In case of Woolworth ltd, valuation of put and call options (under future or derivatives) Valuation of inventory and other assets Impairment of assets and charging impairment loss or profit in financial statements In terms of capital assets management has to estimate useful life of assets that shall last long Discontinue operations Above mentioned transactions and valuation are complex in nature and requires systematic accounting estimates, assumptions and judgements from management or accountant of Woolworth ltd. Therefore wrong estimation or judgement can put tangible effect on financial statement of Woolworth ltd during the reporting period. For example, if management estimates or make wrong assumption while estimating useful life of asset then whole process can lead to misstatement of financial statement(Report 2016). Relevant assertion in this can be accuracy under which auditor has to examine and verify that amount of transaction after estimations and assumption is accurately presented in the financial statement during the reporting period. Another assertion that shall be undertaken to examine this inherent risk is of classification. Auditor with the help of substantive procedures has to verify that transactions which require estimations and assumptions has been classified and presented appropriately(Liya Shufeng 2013). Inherent Risk Factor 3- Inventory Obsolete and Level of competition Describe the risk Since Woolworth ltd is engaged in FMCG or food or beverage industry, therefore it becomes important for manager to calculate appropriate amount of inventory. Although in Woolworth ltd, inventory management system has been employed but it can be observed that in this industry, inventory obsolete level is slightly high. Other factors that influence inventory level and is an inherent risk for Woolworth ltd is level of competition present in the market. There are many other supermarkets that are operating their businesses and has captured major share of market palace(Miller, Cipriano Ramsay 2012). Therefore any move of existing or new competitor of Woolworth ltd can influence its business operations. Therefore there is presence of inherent risk in the working environment of Woolworth ltd. How risk create material misstatement in financial statements For every business organisation and for Woolworth ltd also inventory covers majority of section in the financial statement. It has been analysed from the external and internal analysis of Woolworth ltd that they are largely dependent on their inventory(Wallace 2015). Woolworth ltd has high level of inventory obsolete level. Therefore wrong estimation of inventory and inclusion of obsolete items in the inventory can reflect wrong amount. Therefore auditor shall undergo physical verification of inventory during the audit. Another inherent risk that Woolworth ltd posses is of level of competition and its impact on inventory level. Since Woolworth ltd operates its business in uncertain business environment therefore auditor shall undertaken compliance procedure(Moraru, Grosu Franca 2013). In this case, classification assertion shall be used as obsolete inventory shall not be classified under inventory presented in financial statement. Another assertion shall be followed is of accuracy under which auditor shall examine and verify amount of inventory measured are reliable and accurate. Inherent Risk Factor 4- External Business Risk Factors Risk Description On the basis of initial environmental analysis conducted on Woolworth ltd; it can be observed that they are exposed to many business risk factors. Business risk factors can be defined as the risk of operating company which means risk of business undertaken business operations. Material business risk involve market risk which itself is vast area of concern in terms of inherent risk. Strategic risk is another business risk that Woolworth ltd can face while operating their business(Mohd Karim 2015). Level of cost structure can be increased as management plans to expand business operations and this shall be lead to inherent risk (i.e. increase in cost structure). Another inherent business risk that Woolworth ltd can face is of operational risk that can undertake in the form of failure of business operations as compared to standards. How risk create material misstatement in financial statements Under inherent business risk category there are various risks that is involved in it that auditor shall undertake while preparing audit plan. Most important inherent business risk that auditor shall emphasis on is of operational business risk. Auditor has to make appropriate plan for management of operational efficient Woolworth ltd. Industrial disputes, accidents, work strikes and many other operational inefficiencies has to be identify and examine by auditor during audit. From the annual report of Woolworth ltd, it can be analysed that Woolworth ltd has been involved in many disinvestment, divestment and acquisition activities. Therefore there are huge inherent risk involve in these types of transactions that Woolworth ltd has to control. There are some regulatory or regulatory risk also exists that Woolworth ltd has to face. Auditor has to analyse how these risk will made impact on financial statements. For example, litigation and legal cases against Woolworth ltd and cases in whi ch Woolworth ltd is favourable party. These transactions have to be examined in detail by auditor. In this type of inherent risk, occurrence assertion will be impacted. Occurrence assertion means auditor has to verify that transactions recorded in the financial statements shall be related to Woolworth ltd only. Accuracy is the assertion that needs to be checked by auditor during audit of Woolworth ltd. Accuracy assertion means auditor has to examine and verify that transactions recorded in the financial statements related to business strategic (merger, acquisition or disinvestment) or operations involves accurate amount. Legal and litigation expenses involved in legal cases and suits have been reliably calculated or not have to be examined by auditor. 2. Audit risk model can be define as the model that incorporate all the risk together and make analysis of overall risk of misstatement on financial statements. There are three main components of audit risk model is inherent risk, control risk and detection risk that were identified and analysed by auditor during audit. Inherent risk identify above, will increases the evidence base for audit of Woolworth ltd as inherent risk is at higher side. When inherent risk is at higher side then audit has to undertake substantive procedure. Substantive procedure are those procedure or activities that auditor undertake to detect material misstatement in the financial statements(Burk Hendry 2014). On the basis of above identified inherent risks in the Woolworth ltd, auditor has to do detail checking and has to undertake relevant assertions into account. In case of Woolworth ltd most important concern matter is of making estimation, judgements and assumption while measuring different aspects of financial statement. Following audit risk model that shall be followed by auditor while assessing level of risk involve in estimation, judgements and assumption: Inherent Risk Control Risk Detection Risk Action High Low Moderate In this situation, auditor shall have higher level of reliance on controls and shall perforate moderate level of substantive test. (Ruhnke Schmidt 2014) Potential amount of misstatement in the financial statement can be observe in the judgements and assumptions taken while calculating amount of impairment of assets, estimating useful life of asset and valuation of inventory. Management shall under take different aspect of assessing the impact of material misstatement of incorrect judgements and assumptions that they undertake. Valuations and judgements shall be based on expert opinion(Ruhnke Schmidt 2014). Bibliography Askary, S, Goodwin, D Lanis, R 2012, 'Improvements in Audit Risks Related to Information Technology Frauds', International Journal of Enterprise Information Systems, vol 8, no. 2, pp. 52-60. Batta, G, Ganguly, A Rosett, J 2914, 'Financial statement recasting and credit risk assessment', Accounting Finance, vol 54, no. 1, pp. 47 - 82. Burk, JA Hendry, JA 2014, 'Risk-Based Auditing', Professional Safety, vol 59, no. 6, pp. 76-82. Clikeman, PM Diaz, J 2014, 'ABC Electronics: An Instructional Case Illustrating Auditors' Use of Preliminary Analytical Procedures', Current Issues in Auditing, vol 8, no. 1, pp. 308-318. Djassemi, M 2012, 'A computer-aided approach to material selection and environmental auditing', Journal of Manufacturing Technology Management, vol 23, no. 6, pp. 704 - 716. Hasanov, AS Baharumshah, AZ 2014, 'Exchange-Rate Risk and Exports', Problems of Economic Transition, vol 57, no. 1, pp. 80 - 101. Jans, M, Alles, MG Vasarhelyi, M 2014, 'A Field Study on the Use of Process Mining of Event Logs as an Analytical Procedure in Auditing', The Accounting Review, vol 89, no. 5, pp. 1751 - 1773. Leung, P, Coram, P Cooper, BJ 2015, Modern auditing assurance services, 6th edn, John Wiley and Sons Australia. Liya, M Shufeng, W 2013, 'Design and application research of audit risk control program', Applied Mechanics and Materials, vol 310, pp. 718 - 721. Mainardi, RL 2011, Harnessing the Power of Continuous Auditing Developing and Implementing a Practical Methodology, 1st edn, John Wiley Sons Inc. Miller, TC, Cipriano, M Ramsay, RJ 2012, 'Do auditors assess inherent risk as if there are no controls?', Managerial Auditing Journal, vol 27, no. 5, pp. 448 - 461. Mohd, A-A Karim, M 2015, 'Is Exchange Rate Risk Priced in Microfinance?', Research in International Business and Finance, p. 1. Moraru, M, Grosu, V Franca, D 2013, 'EVALUATION OF THE AUDIT RISK. A CASE STUDY', Anale. Seria Stiinte Economice. Timisoara, vol 19, pp. 503-512. Report, WGA 2016, 'Annual Report Woolworth Group, 2016', Annual report, pp. 63-80. Ruhnke, K Schmidt, M 2014, 'Misstatements in Financial Statements: The Relationship between Inherent and Control Risk Factors and Audit Adjustments', AUDITING: A Journal of Practice Theory, vol 33, no. 4, pp. 247 - 269. Wallace, MC 2015, 'Practical Considerations and Approaches to Developing an Internal Compliance Auditing and Monitoring Program', Journal of Health Care Compliance, vol 17, no. 6, pp. 15-20.

Pipeline Installation Elements

Introduction Pipeline installations have relied on a number of strategies depending on the location. This article provides a brief description of some of the methods used in pipeline installations. The article reviews the following pipeline installations:Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Pipeline Installation Elements specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Pig traps Block valves Offtakes Compressor stations The designs of these pipelines are not standard. Instead, they depend on the location, function of the pipeline relative to fluid for transportation, temperature, and operating pressure. Pipelines have several points of installations to ensure maximum efficiency during transportation of fluids. Pig Traps Pipeline pigging is a method of inspecting and cleaning inner parts of the pipeline using a gadget known as pig. Pig traps are installations used for â€Å"inserting or launching pigs into the pipeline and taking them out or receiving them after a successful run without interrupting the process of fluid flow in the pipeline† (Mohitpour, Szabo and Hardeveld, 2005). A pig trap is like an air lock. The valve separates pig traps from the pipeline. This provides opportunities to depressurise the pipeline in order to insert the pig. Pigs vary in terms of materials and their composition. For instance, there are magnetic flux and air-filled plastic pigs suitable as tools for inspection of leakages. People who use pig traps load and close the trap in order to pressurise the pipeline. However, the main valve trap remains open so that the pressure can direct the fluid when the pig is behind in order to force it into the pipeline. Pigging also has a receiving end where the reverse process takes place. It is imperative to ensure that the pigging system is safe and can withstand extreme temperatures, pressure, and inspection of a pipeline can take place safely. Apart from inspection and cleaning, pi g traps are also suitable for separating fluids under transportation and providing information about the pipeline position and size.Advertising Looking for essay on engineering? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Pigging enhance lifetime of pipelines. Inspection and cleaning ensure that debris, wax, and other materials, which cause blockages, do not hinder the transportation of fluids. This enhances efficiency of the pipeline and provides a continuous flow of fluids. Design Christian Cloyde notes that design considerations of pig traps â€Å"should extend beyond the limits of the pig trap to the boundaries of the pigging station† (Cloyde, 2011). The design must go with the part of the pipeline measurements. Pig traps with mechanical design must match or exceed the design pressure. In addition, it must also have similar design features, compatible type of materials, apply similar design codes, and conform to temperature req uirements just like the section of the pipeline it serves. Dimensionally, a pig trap must relate to the type of pigging in a section of the pipeline it shall serve. This must take into account the line size of the pipeline and the length of the barrel. The design must be able to resist pressure as it allows inserting and receiving of pigs. Pigs are heavy. Thus, it is necessary to consider internal pressure for safety of the system and workers. Pig Trap Design Code Designers usually use international standards and measurements like ASME. The standard codes include â€Å"B31.4, B31.3, B31.8, PD5500, EN13445, and AS2885† (Mohitpour, Szabo and Hardeveld, 2005). These pig traps fit at the end of the pipeline just like extensions. Thus, trap designs can also fit vessel codes. However, this may create mechanical problems where vessels have thick diameters. This implies that the design must conform to the pipeline and trap ends and must be the same as codes for both ends. In all thes e strategies, designs must ensure that loading and receiving process remain safe to the user and the pipeline.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Pipeline Installation Elements specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Design Pressure The design pressure must serve as a basis for determining the thickness of the wall of pipeline and pig traps. It is extremely dangerous to use design pressure, which is below the pressure of the pipeline. It is imperative to consider standard design pressure from ASME and ANSI that provide pressure and temperature guidelines. The designers must subject such materials to hydrostatic pressure tests of 1.25 times more than the design pressure to ensure their safety. However, the code has a significant influence on the design pressure of pig traps. The designer must also ensure extra precaution due to the nature of fluids for transportation along these pipelines. Temperature The design must be ab le to withstand maximum temperature of the fluid. In addition, the design must also take into account both minimum and maximum temperature of the pipeline section and the area. Materials The choices of materials depend on the client’s preferences. However, these materials must conform to safety standards set by regulating authorities. Further, such choices must also conform to materials of pipelines and meet the design requirements of the pipeline. Therefore, designers can only use cost effective and safe materials for installations. At the same time, such products must also be able to withstand reactions from the fluid under transportation. In this light, the designer must consider both metallic and elastomeric materials for the installation. Selection of materials must also consider other properties relating to chemical, mechanical characteristics, and weld capabilities. External loading activities require nozzles for attaching the pipe. Thus, the design must also take into consideration effects of external pressure resulting from such activities with regard to the location of the pipeline such as sub-sea.Advertising Looking for essay on engineering? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More There are sections of the pipeline that may require frequent pigging activities. Under such cases, the designers must also account for fatigue on the pipeline. They must also consider other factors related to load of the fluid, seismic load, and friction. Designers must also consider other factor related to the location of the pipeline section, ease of accessibility, and environmental conditions. For instance, the designer must consider risks inherent for sub-sea pipelines and offer additional protection for valves. Pig traps need adequate space. They must also never be near open flames or sources of ignition. In this case, rules of companies regarding the type of powered gadget allowed near the installation must apply. Designers must ensure maximum care in offshore areas where horizontal space may not be adequate. In such a case, there should be adequate workspace close to the closure door to allow for pigging activities. Such activities involve â€Å"loading and unloading long in spections pigs, removal of liquids and debris from the pipeline and into a waste container, installation, and operation of a temporary separator among others† (Cloyde, 2011). The layout design must ensure that valves are accessible through different means. In this case, the operator does not need to gain access to closure door in order to perform any activity on the valve. Designers must also consider safe and efficient operation of the pig trap by taking into account â€Å"the orientation of the barrel at the pigging station† (Cloyde, 2011). Therefore, all systems must have adequate space for routine operation and maintenance activities. The closure door must never face other equipment or place where people may meet. This is necessary to avoid accidents in which pigs can shoot out and cause damages to equipment and people. Designers must pay special attention to the barrel or the oversized section of the pipeline. The designers must also install dip trays in order to a void cases of contamination resulting from servicing activities. Offshore systems must have facilities for loading and offloading heavy materials. Such tools are necessary to locate large pigs into their positions during installations. Operation The energy industry is also conscious of the environment. Therefore, activities involved in the pig trap must not cause harm to the environment. Operators must take care to minimise effects of fluids in the atmosphere or water (Goodland, 2005). Operation of the pig trap involves launching, sending, and receiving pigs. Maintenance Pig traps require regular maintenance to ensure efficiency and proper function of traps. Maintenance of the pig trap involves piggability assessments and trap assessments (Cordell, 2003). Figure 1: Pig trap Block valves Block valves stop the flow of the fluid in one or more directions. Other people consider block valves as tools, which can allow or prevent the flow of fluid without restriction. This may not require a single way valve. In fact, designers prefer gate valves for such purposes. Operators can fully open or close the valve. In this case, block valves are â€Å"useful for separating a section of the pipeline for maintenance† (Daniel Emerson, 2011). Design Gate valves are easy to use because they do not need a lot of force to surmount the pressure and friction from the pipeline. This is because their design systems allow the blocking end to move in a crosswise manner against the fluid. Gate valves also have small sections in the sealing parts. These rings are dependable and prevent any possible leakages. Gate valves are popular because of the following reasons: Hydraulic resistance is negligible Do not allow reverse flows the fluid Suitable for viscous fluids Designers also take into account factors like effects of pressure, chemicals, temperature, and pressure of the fluid on the valve. They also consider material components of the valves together with driving features. The followings are also important when selecting gate valves: Ability to resist the weather Ability to prevent any leakage Ability to resist extreme forces that may cause bending Ability to meet seismic requirements Operation The block valve can control flow of fluid in either direction. Designers provide three various methods of controlling block valves. These methods include local, remote, and automatic. However, it is the extent of the leak and volumes of release, which determine the method of controlling gate valves. Layout Designers must put block values at pipeline sections where they can provide optimal control of spills and maintenance. Spacing considerations between block valves are also important for onshore pipelines. The aim should be to control flows between adjacent valves. Categories of block valves include. Manual gate values, which are in the check valve sections and locally operated. They ensure positive isolation of the fluid. Remote gate valves are useful in oil and gas pipelines for protection during accidental failures or damages on the pipeline. Station block valves are usually near the pump station to separate fluids from the pump stations during for emergency cases. They are in both the inlet (fluid suction) and outside (fluid discharge) of the pipeline. Maintenance Block valves require constant and scheduled maintenance. Block valves need synthetic lubricants and sealant systems. Generally, new valves require constant monitoring than other valves, which have been in operation for over a year. The maintenance requires constant lubrication in order to lessen the break out torque when in use. Lubrication must spread to the valves gate slabs and seats. Regular adjustments are necessary to ensure that valves have the correct seat seal (Tiratsoo, 2007). Figure 2: Block valve Offtakes Offtakes are within the distribution and transmission systems. It has a number of gadgets for filtering and managing pressure. At the same time, it performs measurement and ‘odourisation’ of the fluid in order to allow for remote operation of the flow of the fluid. Within the pipeline, an offtake can be a vessel or pipeline transferring fluid from one section to another or to a larger pipeline. Design The designers must ensure that offtakes do not lower the pressure of the pipeline channels. Therefore, designers must consider both internal and external measurements, materials used and the length of the pipeline. We can only determine efficiency and flow of the fluid by using internal measurements, length, pressure at the ends, fluid characteristics, temperature, and elevation of the pipe from the ground. For safety reasons, the gas from the pipeline system at offtakes must have the minimum pressure. Designers of offtakes must consider some factors that include: Maximum pressure Maximum temperature Diameter of the header Fluid for transportation Both hot and cold tie-in Available offtake equipment Offtakes Layout and Opera tion The designers must ensure that offtakes have compression stations comprising of enough branches with the mainline. Offtakes require real-time monitoring and performance of analysis using computer systems with high capacities. Companies normally use SCADA (supervisory control and data acquisition) to monitor and plan their offtake systems (Tobin, 2007). The designers must ensure that the gas maintains its pressure as it travels throughout the system. In most cases, the pressure of the gas may drop and reduce the pressure. Thus, designers must ensure that the pressure in never low to prevent the flow. This is why there are compression stations along the pipeline to ensure that the gas pressure does not drop to unacceptable levels (Busby, 1999). Maintenance The aim of maintaining offtakes is to prevent the gas pressure from falling to low levels, which are risky. Thus, operators must ensure that they clear any debris restricting the flow of fluids. Figure 3: Offtakes Compressor S tations The aim of a compressor station along the pipeline is to enhance pressure of the fluid. It uses gas turbines to build pressure for transporting the fluid to the next compressor station. Thus, it increases transmission capacity of the pipeline. Compressor stations provide the necessary force for the gas to overcome friction so that the fluid can maintain the rate of flow and pressure. Compressor Station Design and Layout Designers must consider several factors for compressor stations. Selection Selection of materials must consider standard specifications for safety, performance, and life of the system. Control Systems The compressor station has four levels of control systems. Supervisory Station Driver and driven components Auxiliary control systems Safety of the Compressor Station Operators must consider safety concerns related to fire detection equipment, gas leakages, and safety of the relief valves. Layout The layout of the compressor station consists of the following. Scrubbers that stop fluid from entering the compressor Blow down valves and relief systems By-pass lines Cooler to control temperature of the gas and discharge temperatures The designers also consider the following factors for the entire compressor station. The size of the compressor and its drivers and driving components Climatic conditions of the area in which the pipeline section lies Accessibility of support services Accountability for regulatory requirements involving safety and environmental concerns Human occupancy Designers may build the station using different techniques involving series, parallel, or a combination of these approaches ( Mokhatab, Santos and Cleveland, 2007). Operation Compressor stations rely on automatic processes for their operation. Consequently, there are only minimal human interventions. In this case, facility operators must ensure maximum adherence to manufactures’ safety and operational requirements. However, operation activities of the st ation must consider load of the fluid (Kurz, Lubomirsky and Klaus, 2012). Operators must engage in continuous monitoring of the station, regulate the mixing activities at the compressor, and ensure efficiency of the system. They must also keep data in every station. The control systems also have capabilities of remote control of shut-off valves. However, the sensitive areas require ESD controller (emergency shutdown). This is useful for controlling valves and enabling timely reactions to cases of fire or gas detection. Operators must also note that the main control systems may experience outage due to maintenance or failure. Thus, the system must be under constant surveillance. Compressor station has three types of shutdown. Unit shutdown restartable (USR) reacts in cases where there are low suction or high temperature, pressure, speed, and high pressure of discharge. Unit shutdown lockout (USL) shows that the station has a mechanical problem from failure of the lube components, hi gh vibration, and temperature. Emergency shutdown is applicable in cases where stations compromise safety of the people. This may result from fire or gas detection. Customer emergency shutdown (ESD) results from failure of the seal components and value failures. Maintenance Compressor stations must have a regular monitoring and major changes to their components. Maintenance ensures that the station is safe, works well, and achieves long life. Maintenance of the station must focus on the following areas. General cleanliness of the structure and ground of the station Monitoring of valves and piping of the station Monitoring gas cooler sensors to ensure efficiency Ensuring safety of equipment such as fire extinguishers, fire and gas detection systems, first aid materials, and other protective gears Ensuring regular maintenance of tanks because of their components of solid sludge There should also be regular maintenance of the compressor engine to avoid failure of its blades Figure 4: Compressor station Conclusion Pipeline installation must ensure maximum safety of the people and the environment. This depends on the recommend materials, sizes, maintenance routines, and control of failures detected. At the same time, the design consideration of pipeline installation also ensures that the pipeline operates smoothly and remains safe to users and nearby facilities and people. Reference List Busby, L. (1999). Natural Gas in Non Technical Language. Pennwell: Institute of Gas Technology. Cloyde, C 2011, ‘Pig Trap Design and Assessment Considerations’, Pipeline and Gas Journal, vol. 238 no. 1, pp. 1-6. Cordell, J 2003, Pipeline Pigging Handbook, Clarion Technical Publishers, Houston, TX. Daniel Emerson 2011, Product Datasheet 2011, https://www.emerson.com/documents/automation/user-manual-models-762-763-765-766-gas-loaded-relief-back-pressure-valves-2-to-16-inch-en-55700.pdf Goodland, R 2005, Oil and Gas Pipelines Social and Environmental Impact Assessment , International Association of Impact Assessment, Fargo, ND. Kurz, R, Lubomirsky, M and Brun, K 2012, ‘Gas Compressor Station Economic Optimization’, nternational Journal of Rotating Machinery, vol. 2012, pp. 1-9. Mohitpour, M, Szabo, J and Hardeveld, T 2005, Pipeline operation maintenance: a practical approach, ASME Press, New York. Mokhatab, S, Santos, S and Cleveland, T 2007, ‘Compressor station design criteria’, Pipeline Gas Journal, vol. 7, no. 1, pp. 1-15. Tiratsoo, J 2007, Pipeline integrity. The Journal of Pipeline Engineering, vol. 6 no. 4, pp. 1-84. Tobin, J 2007 Natural Gas Compressor Stations on the Interstate Pipeline Network: Developments Since 1996, Energy Information Administration: Office of Oil and Gas, Washington, DC. This essay on Pipeline Installation Elements was written and submitted by user Gerardo Q. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Judaism Essays

Judaism Essays Judaism Paper Judaism Paper Judaism Name: Institution: Instructor: Course: Date: Section A The three people who have the main covenant are: Noah Abraham Moses Section B Every individual has a social responsibility towards other members of the society. The books of Deuteronomy, Exodus and Numbers give the guidelines that ought to govern man’s social relations. The social themes addressed are like those of equality, compassion, integrity, forgiveness and love. I believe that society has implicit rules that demand coexistence from the members of the society. There are particular pillars that enable the society to exist. These pillars are like those of love, compassion and equality. In my opinion, these pillars are similar to the moral virtues of Judaism. Equality is a core value that will promote harmony in the society. I believe that every individual is equal. This is by the virtue of them being human. Social status should not be the yardstick used to determine how individuals are treated. The moral attitude of Judaism encourages that our acts be governed by equality. The modern day society is dominated by biased attitudes. The wealthy members of the society receive better treatment and services. I believe that they are treated this way because of the influence they have. Integrity in the society is a sign of high levels of morality. The books of Torah talk about lending money to the poor without charging them interest and not hording the wages of a labour. Judaism upholds the virtue of being honest in ones actions. I. believe that these practices are seen as idealistic in the modern society. They are not a reflection of how social relations are governed today. Section C I find that the Jews had very high expectations of the Messiah. According to them, the expected Messiah was to save them from the political oppression that they had been subjected to by the Romans. I, however, feel that too much emphasis was laid on the political aspect of the Messiah. The Jews anticipated a political triumph that would then be justified be morality. This morality was embedded in the moral advancement that the universe would experience in the coming of the Messiah. In forming this kind of expectation, I believe that the Jews painted an idealistic view on the Messiah. The Jews were expecting a leader born in an influential family and one who was wealthy. In my opinion, these perspectives were what made the Messiah to be rejected when He dwelt on earth. I feel that the expectations of the coming Messiah were focused on the physical change that would be marked in his coming. In my opinion, Messianism signifies a period of Spiritual change and that the second coming of t he Messiah will bring about spiritual freedom. Section D I believe that the Sabbath is a day that is dedicated to the worship of God. I know that it is believed that worship should be an everyday affair, but the Sabbath is one day of the week where you isolate yourself and focus on activities that bring give God glory. These activities are like assembling with others to sing hymns, pray and fellowship. I know that the Sabbath is man’s way of emulating God’s rest after the six days of creation. I feel that individuals should take a rest from the normal activities and focus on showing God gratitude to God for His kindness. These normal activities are like carrying out one’s occupational duties, and going to school.

How to Get People to Like You, According to an FBI Behavior Expert

How to Get People to Like You, According to an FBI Behavior Expert We all want to be liked. We all want to be popular at work- at least enough to one day be promoted, enjoy success, and get along with our colleagues. And we all want to make that crucially important first impression into a great one. Networking is too important to fumble. You may have heard that the art of making friends isn’t something you can study up on. But there are a few tried-and-true tricks you can and should employ in the interest of keeping the conversation going, building relationships, and improving your likeability.Here are some of the best.1. Don’t be judgy.According to Robin Dreeke, former head of the FBI’s Behavioral Analysis Program, this is the number one piece of advice she can give to people hoping to be well-liked. It means listening to your conversation partner, asking questions and soliciting opinions, and then not judging that person’s thoughts or feelings.Validate the person you’re speaking to. Understand where they’r e coming from and what they want and need. You’re showing interest by doing this. And letting people talk about themselves? It’s like handing out candy and cocktails when it comes to likeability.2. Let go of your ego.Next time you’re talking to someone and you feel the desire to correct them- or tell an even better story than the one they just told- don’t. Let go your need to be correct and be in the spotlight- it’s the other person’s chance to impress for a while. Don’t just contradict someone because you can. Save that for situations where it’s too important not to.3. Listen correctly.If you think listening is just about shutting up and not saying anything, you’ve got ways to go. It’s definitely not waiting for the other person to stop speaking long enough for you to get in your lines. Instead, show that you’re listening by paraphrasing bits of what was said back to the person, and then asking follow-up q uestions immediately to keep the conversation going. Listen actively, not passively.4. Take an interest in other people.Don’t necessarily ask people about their personal lives or dramas, but do inquire as to what challenges they’re facing- especially in the workplace. It can be helpful for them to talk through these things, and also you can frame it by asking advice. Maybe they raised twins. Maybe they started a business. Start asking questions about challenges and find more common ground.5. Don’t overdo it.New people are more likely to relax around you if you don’t look like you’re about to camp out next to them for the foreseeable future. Make it clear that you have to dash imminently, but you wanted to say hi in the few minutes you still had at the party, etc. Smile and make eye contact, but don’t be too in their face. Be as genuine and pleasant as possible but remain slightly removed, as though they definitely have your full attention, b ut you still have to keep one foot out the door.6. Admit when you’re wrong.It’s not enough to just avoid telling people when they are wrong. You should also make a point to admit when you are wrong. Apologize and take steps to fix it. Be sympathetic and contrite and you’ll avoid hard feelings.7. Be selfless.Once you’ve got a group of coworkers you’re trying to build lasting bonds with, do little things to make them feel important. Say hello to everyone. Show appreciation when due. Put yourself out to do things for your colleagues- even small things like remembering birthdays or including them in conversations. Take a sincere interest in people and they will reward you with their intimacy.8. Criticize with class.If you find you do have to criticize someone, make sure not to make a big show of it. Keep it private, just between the two of you. Don’t make a spectacle or example of it in a more public setting. And try throwing in a compliment or two to soften the blows.

The Propensity for the Success of a Career in Finance as a Business Statistics Project

The Propensity for the Success of a Career in Finance as a Business Leader - Statistics Project Example I derived much learning from my internship experiences. At that time, I was just in my late teens but felt so grown-up in the positions I held. As an assistant, I was given a good view of how things are done in work settings and watch my mentors implement their duties and responsibilities. I also feel honoured that I was trusted by the people I worked with even if I was much younger than they are. One time, a teller was fretting over her balance at the end of the day. She kept counting the money and found out she was short of a hundred pounds! She tried her best to re-trace all the clients whom she transacted with. She spoke out loud enough that I can hear her from a where I was sitting. I was not even aware that my mind was keeping track of the numbers she was saying. She was getting so confused with all the numbers and was at the verge of tears. I approached her and listed down all the transactions she said she made and saw two fifty pound withdrawals from separate clients that she forgot to compute in her balance. Those two transactions were the missing links in her balance sheet. When she realized that, she gave me a big hug out of gratitude and I felt so good at being able to help out. Another teller commended me for my knack for details and said I’d make a great finance analyst someday. Another employee was amazed at how good I was able to keep track of numbers because it was a long day and they had so many clients that day! This incident made me realize that my natural talent for math is an asset that I need to cultivate seeing how it is so helpful to others.

Law of Electronic Commerce and the Internet Essay - 1

Law of Electronic Commerce and the Internet - Essay Example The taxation, customs, trade practices, industrial law, bankruptcy, immigration, administration law, patents, copyright, environment law, sexual and racial discrimination, access to information will be dealt by Federal court of Australia. Federal court will hear the class actions that involve seven or more people who have claims against the one defendant. The family court will deal with family laws. It deals with divorce, division of property and maintenance, child related matters, determining parenting orders and plans. The court to appeal on the decision of family court is high court. The magistrates court of the federal legal system deals with providing the action for litigants and eases the work load of the federal and family court. Thus it works as a complex lessening part in the federal judicial system as the jurisdiction is concurrent with family and federal court. 1 The state legal system's first stage is the magistrate court. The state coroner's office, victims of crimes assistance tribunal, work related injuries and perin courts are part of this system. The majority of the criminal and civil matters that proceed to court will be dealt by magistrate court. The offences of less serious in nature will be dealt by this court system. It is having civil jurisdiction and is the immediate court that can be approached in any case. The next stage in the state legal system is the county court of Victoria. It has both criminal and civil jurisdiction in concurrent with Supreme Court. The person who is not in agreement with the magistrate's court can appeal to county court and the appeal court for this is supreme court of the state. The supreme court of any state will have trial and appeals division that deals with the differentiation of the disputes and appeals. The appeal court for this part of the court system in the state legal system is high court of the country. The high court is the top of the legal hierarchy in Australia. As a result it has both criminal and civil jurisdiction and is the ultimate court to appeal. It can resolve the interstate disputes and thus the federal system prevails over the state legal system. References 1. law institute Victoria, 2007, Australia legal system, Law Institute Victoria, ,electronic, 3-9-07, http://www.liv.asn.au/public/legalinfo/court/ 2. Law institute Victoria, 2007, Australia legal system, law institute Victoria, ,electronic, 3-9-07, http://www.liv.asn.au/public/legalinfo/court/court-The-2.html Question 2 Jurisdiction is the power of the court or the right of the administration that can apply their laws on a particular context or issue. In the absence of internet and e commerce, the Jurisdiction used to depend on the geographical context of the occurrence of the incident. The advent of internet is making the concept of jurisdiction more complex and the administrations are compelled to make new laws regarding jurisdiction in the issues involving internet. In relation to internet there are contexts that raised the question of the authority of the courts in various places. As the electronic communication involves the border crossing the internet is borderless. This needs a definition of jurisdiction of its own without relating to the previous understanding of jurisdiction. The law used to deal with the physical movement or presence that

History Paper Burial Practices Essay Example for Free

History Paper Burial Practices Essay The concept of afterlife existed among many ancient civilizations. It was met as a way of understanding the present or as a way to predict the future depending on their needs. As such, in order to explain the unknown phenomenon that impacted their daily life, early tribes saw natural events as simple as the rain and the winds or birth and death and regarded them to be controlled by supernatural powers related to the gods, demons, the moon, the sun or other external driving forces. Ancient people sought protection for survival and power to maintain order with the tribes by practicing rituals which were aimed to invoke the spirit of the deceased. However, as civilizations evolved with time, their beliefs became more complex and profound. Take ancient Romans and Egyptians for instance, they both believed in the afterlife and shared similar underlying ideas; nevertheless, their way to prepare the deceased for the next life and funeral services differed in many ways. To illustrate their practices, I have chosen two artifacts displayed at the Metropolitan Museum of Art (Met): a coffin from Ancient Egypt and a cinerary urn from Ancient Roman’s times. Both pieces reflect different ways of treating the corpses of their deceased and prepare the dead for the journey to the afterlife which undoubtedly was a long and elaborated process. Ancient Romans and Egyptians demonstrated their firm conviction in the afterlife through solemn funeral services and burial rituals. Unlike the Egyptians who treasured the dead bodies and preserved them in sarcophagus or coffins, Romans cremated the dead bodies and kept the ashes in urns because they perceived the life in physical world to be short and temporary. When a person died, the spirit was released from the body and traveled to the afterlife. The only purpose of the physical body was to host the soul for a period long enough to prepare one to live a life free of suffering in the other world. Souls were sent to different places depending on the level of sins and crimes committed against society during the time people stayed in the mortal world. However, the suffering in the other world would end eventually. Romans’ funeral rituals usually included washing the corpse, laying it flat on a sofa or bed, and dressing it with the finest clothes that individual had ever possessed. A coin would then be placed under the tongue or on the eyes so that he could pay the â€Å"ferryman Charon† for rowing im to the land of the dead. The marble urn I observed at the Met dated from mid 1st – 2nd century A. D. was used to place the ashes of the deceased after the body was cremated. As time went by, they came to understand that the dissolution of the body was inevitable and the physical body was only a temporary host of the soul. This piece of artifact provided evidence that in ancient Romans’ point of view, the remains of the physical body had to be disintegrate d in order for the soul to begin a new life. It is reasonable to conclude that Romans regarded cremating the body of the dead as a naturally faster way to begin the life in the other world than slow disintegration of the corpse. On the other hand, Egyptians believed that the person’s physical body was more than a temporary host and it had to remain intact, a condition necessary to attain the afterlife. Moreover, they contemplated the idea that a person was the combination of several elements such as, the â€Å"ba†, which was the non physical part of the individual and the â€Å"ka† which was a universal force shared by all. Furthermore, in order to preserve the bodies, Egyptians developed a long and arduous process called mummification. This practice requires several steps such as the removal of the brain and internal organs and the cleaning of the body’s cavities with different oils and solutions. Once done, the body was laid to dry for more than a month. Although these steps were crucial for the preservation of the body, it was also believed that the transition process to the afterlife continues with the weighing of the heart. Egyptians believed that in order to gain their way to eternity one’s heart must be as light as a feather. This organ was not removed from the body and was left to be weighted by Anubis, the funeral god and Thoth, the god of knowledge. As such, it is believed that one’s heart is placed on a scale and weigh against a feather. If the scale is balanced, the deceased is deemed to have done good deeds in the present life and the gods would grant them immortality. When the mummification process is finished the preserved body is placed in a coffin as the one displayed at the Met, Gallery 112. This coffin, from Egypt Middle Kingdom time was made for a well respected and wealthy individual. The sophisticated decoration reflects the hierarchical social distinction in this particular society. In conclusion, though both ancient Romans and Egyptians believed in afterlife, they treated the corpses and practiced funeral rituals differently. These mainly resulted from their respective perception of how the mortal life was related to the afterlife as well as the importance to the physical body. By observing the two artifacts displayed at the Met, I’ve found that Egyptians placed more emphasis on the social class of the deceased by putting on splendid decorations on the coffins and sarcophagus than the Romans did on their urns. This difference reflects the core of Roman’s ancient culture which coincided with Greek’s idea of democracy by promoting a society structure with a less rigid hierarchy.

The Effects of Secondary Soil Salinization :: Agriculture Agricultural Essays

Introduction: Irrigation has been used as tool by humans for over 8000 years. Irrigation started in the Nile valley where humans attempted to modify the way that the river seasonally flooded their fields in order to make cropland more productive (van Schilfgaarde, 1994). From 1940 to 1989 the amount of land being irrigated around the world has increased at a rate of 2.7% per year. In 1940 there were 95 M ha in irrigation while by 1989 there were over 280 M ha (van Schilfgaarde, 1994). This large increase in land under irrigation occurred at the same time as an exponential jump in human population, and increases in both are greatest in the arid and sub-arid regions of the Earth. Our population has therefore become reliant on irrigation to fend off large scale hunger (Abrol et al., 1988). As rain falls it carries no dissolved salts. Once this water strikes the earth and travels as surface runoff or in ground water it will come into contact with and carry dissolved salts. Any water used for irrigation carries ions in solution and by depositing this water on our fields in the form of irrigation we can effect the concentration of salts in our croplands. If these salts become too concentrated it can lead to salinization. Salinization can reduce yields in it's earliest stages and eventually lead to the destruction of fertility in the soil. Currently the Earth is losing 3 ha of arable land a minute to the effects of salinization (Abrol et al., 1988). Can we stop this loss? Will we be able continue using arid lands to meet our food needs? The Secondary Salinization Process Salinization has a direct effect on both plant growth and the structure of the soil. If the soil is saline a plant will have to expend energy bringing water into it's cells because it is forced to work against osmotic potential. The cation exchange complex (CEC) effects the stability of colloid size particles in the soil. The cation's positive charge will be attracted to the negative charge found on clay particles which make up most of the colloid fraction. Di-valiant cations(Ca, Mg) will allow the colloidal particle to get close enough together that Van Dehr Wahls forces will cause the clays to flocculate, or form stable aggregates. Sodic soils, whose CEC is dominated by mono-valiant sodium cations, will tend to be dispersed and not form stable aggregates.

Older Siblings: A Second Father Figure Essay

Older siblings! Role models, influences, they carry much more responsibility than it appears. Older siblings, whether they know it or not, shape their younger one’s character and personality. Parents are important, but the older sibling may reinforce or disprove some of the lessons that the parents teach. Younger siblings may not admit to it but they look up to their older sibling and they emulate them. Older siblings particularly serve as agents of socialization who teach younger siblings by example about informal social behaviors, like how to act around friends. Younger siblings are also highly susceptible to acquiring older siblings’ negative habits, including but not limited to: underage drinking and smoking. Here’s an example, let’s look at the Wright brothers, Orville and Wilbur, some of you may have heard of them. Wilbur was 4 years older than Orville, they basically invented the airplane and had had the first controlled, powered flight. I think it’s safe to say that if Wilbur had never played with a toy ‘helicopter’ as a child, Orville never would have had the initial interest in flying. The same could be said for the Staal brothers, they play in the NHL. if Eric had never had interest in hockey and played baseball, Jordan, Marc and Jared never would have gotten into hockey. A lot of recent research shows that children learn undesirable behaviours like smoking, drinking and other delinquent acts from exposure to an older sibling’s behaviours as well as that of their sibling’s friends. It doesn’t matter if the siblings are of a similar age or spaced years apart, or of different gender. What is important was that parents encouraged siblings to develop a relationship where there is mutual respect. Parents are better at teaching the more formal settings – how to act in public or how to have manners at the dinner table. But siblings are better role models of the more informal behaviors: how to act at school or on the street, or, more importantly, how to act cool around friends. Siblings are closer to the social environments that children find themselves in during the majority of their day, which gives them a wider influence on them. Should parents support sibling closeness or not? Studies have shown that siblings may have positive or negative effects on their younger siblings. How would parents be able to moderate what the older sibling teaches to the younger one, or what traits rub off? The best method for it would be for the older sibling to have many positive habits, so that theyre is a greater chance of those habits rubbing off.

Organizational Communication

Shockley-Zalabak (2009) suggests the major characteristics of the scientific management school are carefully developed chains of command and efficient division of labor† (p. 68). The netmba. com (2010) website, which cites Taylor (1911), suggests the following four major characteristics of the scientific management school: * Replace the rule-of-thumb work methods based on a scientific study of the tasks. * Scientifically select, train, and develop each worker rather than passively leaving them to rain themselves. Cooperate with the workers to ensure that the scientifically methods are being followed. * Divide work nearly evenly between managers and workers, so that the managers apply scientific management principles to planning the work and the workers actually perform the tasks. (p. 1) The scientific method implication on communication is manifested in management controlling the chain of communication. Shockley-Zalabak (2009), who cites Faylor (1949), suggests â€Å"orders should come from only one superior and that a bypass of the chain of command would be a source of problems† (p. 9). I believe this suggest that communication is organized from the top down. In addition, I believe this communication method does not afford any input form subordinates or other stakeholders. I believe it assumes that management is always right and is the only source of solutions. Thereby, I believe subordinates are somewhat disenfranchised. Shockley-Zalabak (2009) suggests, â€Å"The human behavior [school characteristics] assumes that work is accomplished through people and emphasizes cooperation, participation, satisfaction, and interpersonal skills† (p. 72). Therefore, I believe this theory encourages open, participatory communication between management and subordinates at all levels. In my organization, I believe our school based management and planning team utilizes this management style in making decisions. The worldbank. org (2007) website suggests school-based management â€Å"is the decentralization of authority from the central government to the school level† (p. 2). Our school based planning management team encourages cooperation, shared decision-making, and participation among all stakeholders, which are tenets of the human behavior theory. Shockley-Zalabak (2009) suggests, integrated perspectives characteristics â€Å"attempt to explain how people, technologies, and environments integrate to influence all that happens in organizations† (p. 77-78). I believe this theory, as Shockley-Zalabak (2009) suggests, affects â€Å"the effectiveness of communication [not only] within the organization, but also to how the organization communicates with its environment, its customers, and community† (p. 88). In my organization, technology is used to communicate real-time attendance, schedule, and grading data to parents and students through a system called SchoolMax. The K12progrms. com website suggests, SchoolMax is one of the most technologically advanced web-based student information systems available on the market today that addresses the broad needs of today's K-12 school districts with a fully integrated and feature rich solution for the management of student information. In final analysis, I suggest scientific method, human behavior, and integrated perspectives influence organizational communication. References http://siteresources.worldbank.org/EDUCATION/Resources/278200-1099079877269/547664-1099079934475/547667-1145313948551/what_is_SBM.pdf Organizational Communication Shockley-Zalabak (2009) suggests the major characteristics of the scientific management school are carefully developed chains of command and efficient division of labor† (p. 68). The netmba. com (2010) website, which cites Taylor (1911), suggests the following four major characteristics of the scientific management school: * Replace the rule-of-thumb work methods based on a scientific study of the tasks. * Scientifically select, train, and develop each worker rather than passively leaving them to rain themselves. Cooperate with the workers to ensure that the scientifically methods are being followed. * Divide work nearly evenly between managers and workers, so that the managers apply scientific management principles to planning the work and the workers actually perform the tasks. (p. 1) The scientific method implication on communication is manifested in management controlling the chain of communication. Shockley-Zalabak (2009), who cites Faylor (1949), suggests â€Å"orders should come from only one superior and that a bypass of the chain of command would be a source of problems† (p. 9). I believe this suggest that communication is organized from the top down. In addition, I believe this communication method does not afford any input form subordinates or other stakeholders. I believe it assumes that management is always right and is the only source of solutions. Thereby, I believe subordinates are somewhat disenfranchised. Shockley-Zalabak (2009) suggests, â€Å"The human behavior [school characteristics] assumes that work is accomplished through people and emphasizes cooperation, participation, satisfaction, and interpersonal skills† (p. 72). Therefore, I believe this theory encourages open, participatory communication between management and subordinates at all levels. In my organization, I believe our school based management and planning team utilizes this management style in making decisions. The worldbank. org (2007) website suggests school-based management â€Å"is the decentralization of authority from the central government to the school level† (p. 2). Our school based planning management team encourages cooperation, shared decision-making, and participation among all stakeholders, which are tenets of the human behavior theory. Shockley-Zalabak (2009) suggests, integrated perspectives characteristics â€Å"attempt to explain how people, technologies, and environments integrate to influence all that happens in organizations† (p. 77-78). I believe this theory, as Shockley-Zalabak (2009) suggests, affects â€Å"the effectiveness of communication [not only] within the organization, but also to how the organization communicates with its environment, its customers, and community† (p. 88). In my organization, technology is used to communicate real-time attendance, schedule, and grading data to parents and students through a system called SchoolMax. The K12progrms. com website suggests, SchoolMax is one of the most technologically advanced web-based student information systems available on the market today that addresses the broad needs of today's K-12 school districts with a fully integrated and feature rich solution for the management of student information. In final analysis, I suggest scientific method, human behavior, and integrated perspectives influence organizational communication. References http://siteresources.worldbank.org/EDUCATION/Resources/278200-1099079877269/547664-1099079934475/547667-1145313948551/what_is_SBM.pdf

The Old Man & The Sea essays

The Old Man & The Sea essays The Bible, To Kill a Mockingbird, and The Catcher in the Rye. All books. Old books that are still enjoyed by old and young readers alike. But what makes these books different from other books? Why are these classics and yet other books arent? Arent ALL old books classics? As we all know, and this paper will prove, is that not all old books are classics. There is a formula, or a blueprint that often can make the book great. The Old Man s known nothing in life other than fishing. And baseball. But theres more than that. Underlying topics, unanswered questions and a great struggle plague the reader as hes reading, and even after completing the book, leaving a sense of wonder much like other classics. First, we start with some undefined hints in the book. The novel uses its characters and events in a way that draws many comparisons to Jesus Christ. For example, if the fish was Jesus, it was consumed by the shark (death), but still his bones (the spirit or message of God) had a profound impact on the people who passed it and saw. Also, if the man is representing the worlds believers, and the fish is their faith and salvation, he should be wary of the evil of the world trying to take it away from him. Besides the obvious, more straightforward symbolism (the man carrying the beam, 3 days at sea, etc.), these demonstrate an aspect for the reader to ponder. Like this book, many classics have themes that are not as easily seen, like racism, religion, and capital punishment to name a few. These themes are often controversial, which is why these books are frequently challenged. Next are the unanswered questions. What happened to the boys family? Or Santiagos wife? What happens between the boy and Santiago at the end? Does Santiago adopt him? All of these are le...

Similarities Between Martin Luther King Jr. And Malcolm X

Similarities Between Martin Luther King Jr. And Malcolm X The Rev. Martin Luther King Jr. and Malcolm X may have had different takes on the philosophy of nonviolence, but they shared a number of similarities. As they aged, both men adopted a global consciousness that linked them together ideologically. Their personal lives also mirrored each other. Not only did their fathers have much in common but their wives did as well. Perhaps this is why Coretta Scott King and Betty Shabazz eventually became friends. By focusing on the common ground between Martin and Malcolm, its easier to understand why both men’s contributions to society were so important. Born to Baptist Ministers Malcolm X may be well known for his involvement in the Nation of Islam (and later traditional Islam), but his father, Earl Little, was a Baptist minister. Little was active in the United Negro Improvement Association and a supporter of black nationalist Marcus Garvey. Due to his activism, white supremacists tormented Little and were strongly suspected in his killing when Malcolm was six. King’s father, Martin Luther King Sr., was a Baptist minister and activist as well. In addition to serving as head of  the famous Ebenezer Baptist Church in Atlanta, King Sr. led the Atlanta chapter of the NAACP and the Civic and Political League. Unlike Earl Little, however, King Sr. lived until the age of 84. Married Educated Women During a time when it was uncommon for African-Americans or the public generally to attend college, both Malcolm X and Martin Luther King Jr. married educated women. Taken in by a middle-class couple after her biological mother reportedly abused her, Malcolm’s future wife, Betty Shabazz, had a bright life ahead of her. She  attended the Tuskegee Institute  in Alabama and the Brooklyn State College School of Nursing in New York City after that. Coretta Scott King was similarly academically inclined. After graduating at the top of her high school class, she pursued higher education at Antioch College in Ohio and the New England Conservatory of Music in Boston. Both women mainly served as homemakers while their husbands were alive but branched out into civil rights work after becoming â€Å"movement widows.† Adopted a Global Consciousness Before Death Although Martin Luther King Jr. was known as a civil rights leader and Malcolm X as a black radical, both men became advocates for oppressed people across the globe. King, for example, discussed how the Vietnamese people had experienced colonization and oppression when he expressed his opposition to the Vietnam War. â€Å"The Vietnamese people proclaimed their own independence in 1945 after a combined French and Japanese occupation, and before the Communist revolution in China,† King remarked in his â€Å"Beyond Vietnam† speech in 1967. â€Å"They were led by Ho Chi Minh. Even though they quoted the American Declaration of Independence in their own document of freedom, we refused to recognize them. Instead, we decided to support France in its reconquest of her former colony.† Three years earlier in his speech â€Å"Ballot or the Bullet,† Malcolm X discussed the importance of expanding civil rights activism to human rights activism. â€Å"Whenever you are in a civil rights struggle, whether you know it or not, you are confining yourself to the jurisdiction of Uncle Sam,† he said. â€Å"No one from the outside world can speak out on your behalf as long as your struggle is a civil  rights struggle. Civil rights come within the domestic affairs of this country. All of our African brothers and our Asian brothers and our Latin  American brothers cannot open their mouths and interfere in the domestic affairs of the United States.† Killed at the Same Age While Malcolm X was older than Martin Luther King- he was born May 19, 1925, and King was born Jan. 15, 1929- both were assassinated at the same age. Malcolm X was 39 when members of the Nation of Islam gunned him down on Feb. 21, 1965, as he gave a speech at the Audubon Ballroom in Manhattan. King was 39 when James Earl Ray gunned him down on April 4, 1968, as he stood on the balcony of the Lorraine Motel in Memphis, Tennessee. King was in town to support striking African-American sanitation workers. Families Unhappy With Murder Cases The families of both Martin Luther King Jr. and Malcolm X were dissatisfied with how authorities handled the murders of the activists. Coretta Scott King did not believe that James Earl Ray was responsible for King’s death and wanted him exonerated. Betty Shabazz long held Louis Farrakhan and other leaders in the Nation of Islam responsible for Malcolm X’s death, though Farrakhan has denied involvement in Malcolm’s murder. Two of the three men convicted of the crime, Muhammad Abdul Aziz and Kahlil Islam, also denied playing roles in Malcolm’s assassination. The one man convicted of the murder who did confess, Thomas Hagan, agrees that Aziz and Islam are innocent. He said he acted with two other men to execute Malcolm X.

Stratgic Management Accounting (case study) Essay

Stratgic Management Accounting (case study) - Essay Example Management accountants provide important financial information that facilitate strategic planning, help to formulate and review budgets of the organization and identify existing discrepancies in budgets. They also remove wastages, set cost of production and prices of products produced as well as support good corporate governance. The above roles and functions of management accountants are explained below. First, management accountants facilitate strategic planning by providing information on costs and related activities in the organization. This is because they collect and analyze important information on all the activities that organizations engage in. The information may include all production, marketing and administrative costs. They also attempt to allocate costs and revenues to all activities in the organization. The management accountants record all the activities and associated cost. Therefore, they are able to develop indicators of business performance. In addition, they make comparison of various activities and develop benchmarks that form the basis of business monitoring and evaluation system for the business organization. The information they provide, help management teams to make various investment decision. Secondly, management accountants formulate and review budgets of the business organization. Budgets are important in apportioning financial resources to various activities of the company. Financial resources are scarce and require detailed analysis and planning to ensure that all departments receive adequate amount of money to conduct their daily operations. Management accountants enable the organization to allocate money and other resources to productive areas of the company based on their detailed cost analysis. This ensures that the business spends money only on what is important and that all activities are fairly considered. The budgets include capital budgets, cash budgets and production budgets. Management accountants

Too big to fail Movie Review Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Too big to fail - Movie Review Example The television movie was based on a book by Andrew Ross Sorkin entitled Too Big to Fail: The Inside Story of how Wall Street and Washington Fought to Save the Financial System – and Themselves. In essence, the book and the movie discussed the issue of how the banks were careless in their lending practices leading to accumulation of worthless and toxic paper assets (Sorkin 2) which threatened their viability but are now in a bind expecting government to help them out somehow through a bailout, arguing they are too big to fail without seriously affecting the entire banking system (HBO, 2014). Their argument is a form of blackmail to government to act decisively soon: help us or clean up the entire mess. The movie revolves around the two old and venerable investment banks of Merrill Lynch and Lehman Brothers; the former found a white knight savior in Bank of America but Lehman Brothers was more problematic to solve. Two issues are paramount in this movie that require some ethical thinking: should banks engage in risky lending practices (moral hazard) that results in a failure of free market capitalism and secondly, if taxpayers money should be used to benefit a few people (are tax dollars used wisely or not? and are bailouts helpful or not?). Easy credit was the cause of the 2008 financial crisis but cutting off credit into a crunch can worsen the recession into possibly a new depression like in 1929 (Kinsley, para. 4). Kinsley, Michael. â€Å"Economic Crisis Unfurls in Hushed Suspense.† The New York Times, 22 May 2011. Web. 14 July 2014.

French Culture vs American Culture Research Paper

French Culture vs American Culture - Research Paper Example As in playing a game of chess, knowing how to plan several moves ahead and anticipate what move your opponent could make accordingly, is essential to winning or the success of a goal. Culture, as defined by Brooks Peterson (2004), is a composition of several aspects of a people. â€Å"Culture is the relatively stable set of inner values and beliefs generally held by groups of people in countries or regions, and the noticeable impact these values and beliefs have on the peoples’ outward behaviors and environment (Peterson 17).† Understanding values of a society does not always mean that a person will act according to those values, given a certain set of circumstances. As Japanese children are trained early on to work together in a group and value this aspect of working, this may not actually occur in a business situation unless the right elements of understanding the goal and who does what, is precisely defined for them. Themes can be viewed as big themes such as famous actors, or little themes, such as the latest trend in android phones. In the United States, technology and new media are considered little themes and Angelina Jolie is a big theme. For the French, foreigners who can speak French while in their country, will fare much better than the Americans, who float from one town to the next, asking who can speak English. It is a certain type of snobbery that the French have about foreigners being in their country (Peterson 25). The ‘Big Five’ personality traits used in determining cultural intelligence, as proposed by both Peterson (2004) and in the work of Engle and Nehrt (2012), are neuroticism versus emotional stability, extraversion, openness to experiences, agreement versus antagonism, and conscientiousness versus undirectedness or lack of focus (Engle and Nehrt 36). In having these attributes, a person is able to adjust and assimilate with another culture without standing out as a sore thumb, thus providing a company the oppo rtunity to work with others on a global basis. Americans, however, in business situations, are more readily adaptable to other cultures than those who have cultures that are not so heavily integrated as is found in the United States (Earley and Mosakowski 139). As many Americans, particularly in large Northeastern cities, come from foreign countries or at least grew up in a family with a non-American background, it is easier to assimilate other cultures than those people who come from a predominantly one-culture world in their country. As global companies move their businesses to Southern states in the U.S., this trend is also growing here as well. Different styles of how to approach a joint project between two global countries, one, French and one, American, may show that Americans are ready to move ahead while the French prefer to have all the details worked out and the numbers in place before even taking the first step (Peterson 54). Some of this could be put down to the fact tha t governments work differently from one country to the next and therefore, have learned to work according to the criteria presented by regulations and government restrictions. Working this side out, takes a bit of doing, depending on which country the project will actually be implemented in (Earley and Mosakowski 140). In choosing those with cultural intelligence for positions of conducting projects with foreign companies, it is

Attitude Formation: Cognitive Consistency and Inconsistency

Attitude Formation: Cognitive Consistency and Inconsistency Minahil Meher Attitude Formation Many of our views are acquired in situations in which we interact with or observe the behaviour of others, called social learning. Such learning can be acquired through several processes, which in turn help us form attitudes. Classical Conditioning: Learning based on Association The evoking of an attitude by the association of an unconditioned stimulus with a neutral conditioned stimulus is the first process of â€Å"learning†; classical conditioning. When a stimulus that is capable of producing a positive response (U.S) regularly precedes a second stimulus (C.S), the first becomes a signal for the second. Advertisers and other persuasion agents have considerable expertise in using this principle to create positive attitudes towards their products. EXAMPLE: Marketing a new drink. Before Conditioning: Attractive Girls Positive Emotions (Unconditioned Stimulus) (Unconditioned Response) Drink’s Logo No Response (Neutral Stimulus) During Conditioning: Attractive Girls Positive Emotions/Attitudes Drink’s Logo (Conditioned Response) After Conditioning: Drink’s Logo Positive Emotions/ Attitudes (Conditioned Stimulus) As the Drink’s Logo is continuously being paired with images of attractive girls, positive attitudes will be developed within the target population. Classical conditioning takes place best in social settings where an individual’s close ones are concerned, thus helping form attitudes. A young child sees her mother frown and show other signs of displeasure and discomfort in the presence of a particular societal or religious class of people. At first the child is neutral towards the presence of these people as she/he is unaware of their distinct characteristics e.g. skin colour, type of clothes, language etc. The child at this point has not yet learned to categorize these variations in terms of group membership. However, once these cues are paired repeatedly with the mother’s negative emotional reactions, classical conditioning occurs, and the child then gradually begins to react in a similar fashion as her mother in the presence of the particular set of people. This usually takes place on the unconscious level i.e. the child may not have conscious access to the role that mother’s changed emotional reactions pla y on the formation of a negative attitude. As a result, the child acquires a negative attitude that is generalized to members of that group as a whole. Subliminal Conditioning: According to a study by Krosnick et. al. (1992, as cited in Baron et.al. 2010), individuals can often form an attitude without being aware of the stimulus responsible. Students were shown photographs of a stranger engaging in a grocery store or walking into her apartment. While viewing these photos, other pictures; associated with either positive or negative feelings, were exposed for brief periods of time. Participants who were exposed to photographs that induced positive feelings (e.g. laughter, newly wed couple) liked the stranger better than participants who had been exposed to photos that induced negative feelings (e.g. open-heart surgery). This for of attitude formation is known as subliminal conditioning. Mere Exposure: This refers to having seen an object before, but not remembering having seen it. This too results in attitude formation and its effects on attitudes are stronger as the stimuli are perceived consciously rather than subliminally thus, conscious memory of the stimuli is not required (but conscious exposure is). Alzheimer patients, who cannot not memorize the stimuli, are seen to form new attitudes on the basis of mere exposure to certain stimuli. Instrumental Conditioning: Rewards for the â€Å"Right† Views. We can acquire an attitude toward our classes and jobs through instrumental conditioning i.e. learning based on direct experience with the object on the basis of rewards and punishments. If an individual experience rewards related to some object, his/her attitude will be favorable. Thus, if their work provides them with good pay, a sense of accomplishment, and compliments from co-workers, their attitude toward it will be quite positive. Attitudes that are followed by positive outcomes tend to be strengthened and are likely to be repeated, while attitudes that are followed by negative outcomes are weakened so their likelihood of being expressed again is reduced. The rewards given to individuals during such conditioning, in a social context, are usually in the form of psychological acceptance. That is why it is seen that most children express political, religious and social views that are highly similar to those of their parents and other family members, until the teen when the peer influences become especially strong. EXAMPLE: Positive/Favorable Attitude toward alcohol consumption (Teenage). Before Instrumental Conditioning: Alcohol Consumption Negative (Behaviour) (Attitude towards it) Peers provide IF Alcohol Consumed: Social Acceptance/ Status (Reward Given) After Instrumental Conditioning: Alcohol Consumption Positive (Behaviour) (Attitude towards it) This shows that if someone rewards a behavior, even if the behaviour itself is wrong, it is more likely to be repeated as it is strengthened – it is the â€Å"right† view in the opinions of those who are in favor of alcohol consumption. As adults, we may be aware that different groups we belong to will reward or punish us for expressing support for a particular attitude position. We may even find ourselves expressing one view on a topic to one audience and another view to a different audience. A relevant example would be the upcoming Elections ’13 of Pakistan i.e. they depend on a candidate’s success at delivering the â€Å"right view† to the â€Å"right audience†, and so may be perceived as shifting their responses to accommodate the views of different audiences rather than taking a firm stand on anything. This shows that they alter their attitudes just to gain rewards from people (votes). This however, can also be applied to the voters who will change their views or attitudes of voting for a particular party on the basis of the rewards in store for them e.g. financial benefits, technological advancements etc. Observational Learning: Learning by Exposure to Others Attitudes can form also in the absence of direct rewards for acquiring or expressing those attitudes through the method of observational learning or vicarious learning; when individuals acquire attitudes or behaviors simply by observing others. According to Myers and Caniglia (2004, as cited in Delamater Myers, 2011) the media provide interpretive packages or frames about an object that may influence the attitudes of viewers and readers. By portraying events and actors in certain ways, TV news, news magazines, and newspapers can produce cognitive images of a racial group as being volatile, dangerous, or unreasonable that in turn produce negative attitudes. A common example is that of how Muslims are shown on international television; as terrorists, instilling within the international audience that all Muslim’s are terrorists even though they may never have actually been in direct contact with them and yet develop a negative attitude towards them. But why do people adopt the a ttitudes that they hear others express or imitate the behaviors they observe in others? Social Comparison: This refers to our tendency to compare ourselves with others to determine whether our view of social reality is correct or not, as we often adopt the attitudes that others hold. An individual is then seen to adopt the attitude position of those they see as similar to themselves and not of those they consider or see as dissimilar. An 18 year-old girl is more likely to look at another 18 year-old girl to adopt a clothing fashion or be up-to-date with the latest trends rather than a 50 year-old woman who isolates herself from societal values. Similarly if a teenaged boy wants to know about the latest games to play on his Xbox/PS3, he will more likely observe ‘gamers’ rather than non-gamers also, if we go deeper, he will observe gamers who play the same kind of games as him; same genre of games. Reference Groups: A reference group consists of the people an individual values and prefers to identify with, who they look up to when adjusting and forming their attitudes. The adoption of an attitude thus depend on extend to which an individual identifies with the group advocates the formation of an attitude or the change. This may apply to making small purchase decisions; which brand of sunscreen to buy, as well as forming attitudes about other groups of people; whether a new social group is positive or negative. According to a research it has been proven that if your reference group holds negative views about a new social group we have never been in contact with, we are more likely to form the similar negative attitude towards them despite not knowing them at all. Not only this but we ourselves expect to be influenced by those who we consider as similar. Example: University students being given a lecture on AIDS and the hazards of unprotected sex are more likely to be influenced by the attitude or views of the speakers if they are also university students, like themselves. Cognitive Consistency/Inconsistency Consistency among a person’s cognitions i.e. beliefs and attitudes is widespread. If you have liberal political values, you probably favor medical assistance programs for people living in poverty. If you value equal rights for all persons, you probably support affirmative action plans. The observation that most people’s cognitions are consistent with one another implies that individuals are motivated to maintain that consistency. Several theories of attitude organization are based on this principle. In general, these cognitive consistency theories hypothesize that if an inconsistency develops between cognitive elements, people are motivated to restore harmony between those elements. Balance Theory: Social balance theory as proposed by Fritz Heider (1946) is the theory that people strive for cognitive balance in their network of likes and dislikes. According to the balance theory, an imbalanced state is one in which two of the relationships between elements are positive and one is negative or in which all three are negative. This theory can thus be used to explain our attitudes and anxiety related to people we know, and consists of three possible states: Balance: When the person/people we know have the same attitude as us. Imbalance: When the person/people we know hold a contradictory attitude to ours. Non-balance: When the person/people we don’t like hold a contradictory attitude to ours. Example: Consider Fatima and Bilal, who are seniors in college. They have been going out together for 3 years and soon want to get married. Bilal is thinking about going to law school. Fatima doesn’t want him to stay in school after he gets his bachelor’s degree. She doesn’t want him to go to school for 3 more years, during their starting years of marriage. Bilal feels strongly about Law School (Positive Attitude). Bilal loves Fatima greatly and so does she (Positive Attitude). Fatima doesn’t want him to go to Law School (Negative Attitude). Thus there is an imbalance that needs to be restored. There are three basic ways to do this: First, Bilal may change his attitudes so that the attitude status (negative or positive) of one of the relations is reversed. For instance, Bilal may decide he does not want to attend law school (Positive to Negative). Alternatively, Bilal may decide he does not love Fatima (Positive to Negative), or he may persuade Fatima it is a good idea for him to go to law school (Negative to Positive). Each of these involves changing one relationship so the system of beliefs contains either zero or two negative relationships. Bilal can restore balance by changing a positive or negative relation to a null relation. Bilal may decide that Fatima doesn’t know anything about law school and her attitude toward it is irrelevant. Third, Bilal can restore balance by differentiating the attributes of the other person or object. For instance, Bilal may distinguish between major law schools, which require all the time and energy of their students, and less prestigious ones, which require less work. Fatima is correct in her belief that they would have to postpone marriage if he went to Yale Law School. However, Bilal believes he can go to a local school part-time and also work and maintain a marriage. Balance is usually restored in whichever way is easiest. If one relationship is weaker than the other two, the easiest mode of restoring balance is to change the weaker relationship. Because Bilal and Fatima have been seeing each other for 3 years, it would be very difficult for Bilal to change his sentiments toward Fatima. It would be easier for him to change his attitude toward law school than to get a new fiancà ©e. However, Bilal would prefer to maintain their relationship and go to law school. Therefore, he may attempt to change Fatima’s attitude, perhaps by differentiating the object (law schools). If this influence attempt fails, Bilal will probably change his own attitude towards law school. Cognitive-Dissonance Theory: Whenever we make a decision, there are some cognitions; attitudes, beliefs, knowledge, that are consonant with that decision, and other cognitions that are dissonant with it. Dissonant cognitions create an unpleasant psychological state that we are motivated to reduce or eliminate. Whereas balance theory deals with the relationships among three cognitions, dissonance theory deals with consistency between two or more elements (behaviors and attitudes). There are two situations in which dissonance commonly occurs: After a decision. When one acts in a way that is inconsistent with one’s beliefs. Post-decision Dissonance: After one has made a decision. Example: Sajid needs a job in the city to earn money for his family. Having made the choice, Sajid is experiencing cognitive dissonance; a state of psychological tension induced by dissonant relationships between cognitive elements. Some decisions produce a large amount of cognitive dissonance, others very little. The magnitude of dissonance experienced depends in part on the proportion of elements that are dissonant with a person’s decision. In Sajid’s case, there are three consonant and only two dissonant cognitions, so he will experience moderate dissonance. The magnitude is also influenced by the importance of the elements. He will experience less dissonance if it is not important that he will seldom get a holiday, but more dissonance if spending time with his family is of great importance to him. A way of reducing the dissonance would be to emphasize more on the consonant cognitions and de-emphasize the dissonant cognitions. Counter-attitudinal Behavior: A second circumstance that produces dissonance occurs when a person behaves in a way that is inconsistent with his or her attitudes. Example: When a person who considers himself high in honesty is asked to lie. Jameel works as a sales man and is asked to lie to the customers about the quality of a certain product; asked to say it’s imported when it’s not. For every customer he convinces to make such a purchase, he receives extra money (apart from his basic salary). If Jameel actually lies to the customer, he will face dissonance as it goes against his attitude of being honest; behaviour is inconsistent with cognitions. The theory of cognitive dissonance, in regard to reducing the amount of dissonance being faces predicts that One will change their attitudes toward the tasks (like them better). The amount of change will depend on the incentive paid to tell the lie. Specifically, the theory predicts that greater attitude change will occur when the incentive to tell the lie is low rather than high, because one will experience greater dissonance under low incentives than under high incentives. References:   Baron, R. A., Bhardwaj. G., Branscombe, N. R. Byrne, D. (2011) Social Psychology  (12th ed). India: Dorling Kindersley. Delamater, J. D. Myers, D. J. (2011) Social Psychology (7th ed). CA, USA:  Wadsworth Cengage Learning.